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You may give little thought to the Federal Reserve, but the Fed looms large over your life as you borrow, save, spend, and invest.

The Fed’s mission is to control inflation and maintain maximum employment. The goals can be at odds with each other.

Let’s look at the Federal Reserve’s origin story and what the central banking system is currently up to.

How It All Began

A secret meeting in 1910 on an island off Georgia laid the foundation for the Federal Reserve. After a series of financial panics and recessions in the Gilded Age, six men gathered at the Jekyll Island Club to write a plan to reform the nation’s banking system.

At that time, U.S. banks held large reserves of cash, but they were scattered. During a crisis, the reserves would be frozen. In addition, the supply of currency was inelastic and supplies of gold limited. And U.S. banks could not operate overseas.

The Panic of 1907 — a worldwide financial crisis surpassed only by the Great Depression — galvanized Congress, and particularly Senate Finance Committee Chairman Nelson Aldrich. In the fall of 1910, Aldrich and his Jekyll Island colleagues developed a plan for a central bank with 15 branches. The national body would set discount rates for the system and buy and sell securities.

Political wrangling ensued, but Congress passed, and President Woodrow Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. The bill resembled the Aldrich plan.

The law called for a central banking system with a governing board and multiple reserve banks. The hybrid structure endures.

A golden factoid: Banking panics before 1913 tested the mettle of Manhattan banks, but what is now the most influential of the 12 reserve banks, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, is home to the world’s largest gold storage reserve, with about 500,000 gold bars owned by the U.S. government, foreign governments, other central banks, and international organizations.

The First Century of the Federal Reserve

Before the Fed was born, financial panics caused by speculation and rumors led to the call for a central banking authority that would support a healthier banking system.

World War I, 1914 to 1918

The Federal Reserve Board and the 12 reserve banks were just getting organized as war broke out in Europe. But once the nation entered World War I, the Fed quickly became a major player by supporting the U.S. Treasury’s war bond effort and offering lower interest rates to member banks when the proceeds were used to buy bonds.

The Fed also gave better interest rates to banks purchasing Treasury certificates. Lower rates led to increased borrowing by businesses and households, which stimulated economic growth. But the increased money supply eventually led to rising prices. When the war ended, the Fed took action to control that inflation.

Stock Market Crash of 1929

On Oct. 28, 1929, now known as “Black Monday,” the Roaring Twenties ended with a thud when the Dow Jones Industrial Average dropped nearly 13%. The market collapsed the next day. It was the most devastating stock market crash in U.S. history.

Many economists and historians blame the Fed for the crash because of its decision to raise interest rates in 1928 and 1929 to control over speculation (what today might be called “irrational exuberance”) in the stock market.

Leaders decreased the money supply starting in 1928 and pressured member banks in 1929 to rein in their loans to brokers and charge a higher rate on broker loans.

The Great Depression, 1929 to 1941

The deepest downturn in U.S. history lasted from 1929 to 1941. The contraction began in the United States and reverberated around the globe.

The banking panics in 1930 and early 1931 were regional, but in late 1931 the commercial banking crisis spread throughout the nation. The Fed’s efforts to contain the collapse were not enough, and the situation reached rock bottom by March 1933.

On March 6, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt — who’d been inaugurated just two days before — announced a weeklong suspension of all banking transactions. Legislative intervention soon followed.

In 1933 the Glass-Steagall Act separated commercial and investment banking and gave the federal government and Federal Reserve enhanced powers to deal with the economic crisis, which led to the creation of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. and regulation of deposit interest rates. (At an FDIC-insured bank today, deposits are insured up to $250,000 per depositor, per institution, and per ownership category.)

The Banking Act of 1935 gave the Fed more independence from the executive branch; shifted power from the regional reserve banks to the Board of Governors, based in Washington, D.C.; and led to the modern form of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), the Fed’s main monetary policymaking committee, which consists of the Fed governors in Washington and the presidents of the 12 regional banks.

World War II, 1941 to 1945

The Fed’s role during World War II was similar to its role in World War I. Its main mission became financing the war, and it helped the Treasury Department market war bonds in cooperation with commercial banks and businesses.

The reserve banks also reduced their discount rate to 1% and set a rate of half a percentage point for loans secured by short-term government obligations. During the war years, the Fed kept its eye on inflation by regulating consumer credit. It required large down payments and shorter terms on loans used to buy a variety of consumer goods.

Korean War, 1950 to 1953

At the start of the Korean War, inflation was a growing concern. But the Fed was once again under pressure — this time from the Truman administration — to help finance the war effort.

In February 1951, the Fed declared its independence in fiscal matters, and in March, the Treasury and the Fed announced that they had reached an accord on how they would handle “debt management and monetary policies” going forward.

The Great Inflation, 1970s and ’80s

Keeping inflation under control has always been an important role for the Fed, but in the 1970s, when the stock market slumped and the country found itself in an inflation crisis so deep it was known as the “Great Inflation,” it became a special challenge.

Check the history books and you’ll find plenty of finger-pointing. It was President Richard Nixon’s fault for disengaging from the gold standard. Or maybe it was the Fed’s fault for employing a confusing stop-go monetary policy that had interest rates going up, then down, then back up.

Then new Fed chairman, Paul Volcker, took over in 1979 and switched the Fed’s goal from targeting interest rates to targeting the money supply. It was painful. The prime lending rate (the rate banks offer their most creditworthy customers when they’re looking to take out a line of credit or a loan) skyrocketed to over 21% at one point.

Unemployment reached double digits in some months. The country went through two recessions. But eventually, prices stabilized.

And the federal funds rate hasn’t been in the double digits since the mid-1980s.

The Great Recession, 2007 to 2009

When a period in U.S. history is labeled “great,” it’s often anything but. During the Great Recession, home prices fell. Unemployment rose. Gross domestic product fell. And in 2008, the market crashed.

Home prices had peaked at the beginning of 2007, and the subprime mortgage market had been busy.

This recession was, for many Americans, the worst of times; they lost their jobs, their homes, and their confidence in the economy.

Enter the Fed, which started by tackling the slump with a traditional response: From September 2007 to December 2008, the Fed lowered the federal funds rate from 5.25% to zero to 0.25%, and FOMC policy statements noted that it would be keeping the rate at exceptionally low levels for a while. But it didn’t stop there.

In 2008 it also began its first round of quantitative easing, buying $600 million in mortgage-backed securities, and continued that effort in 2009. Also in 2008, President George W. Bush signed the $700 million Troubled Asset Relief Program into law. Two more rounds of quantitative easing started in 2010 and 2012 under President Barack Obama.

Recommended: Common Recession Fears and How to Cope

The Covid Crisis, the Fed, and Inflation

At the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic and resulting recession in 2020, making sure the U.S. economy did not fall into a prolonged recession became a higher priority than maintaining inflation at the Federal Reserve’s 2% target rate.

The Fed seeks to control inflation by influencing interest rates. When inflation is too high, the Fed typically raises its benchmark interest rate to slow the economy and tame inflation. When inflation is low, the Fed often lowers the federal funds rate — the interest rate that banks use when they lend money to one another overnight — to stimulate the economy.

After keeping the rate near zero, in March 2022, the Fed approved its first rate increase in more than three years. Between March 2022 and July 2023, the Fed raised rates eleven times, the fastest tightening campaign since the 1980s. The Fed held rates at 5.25% to 5.50% from July 2023 to September 2024. Then as the cuts seemed to achieve their goal, inflation slowed. Inflation, as evidenced by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), peaked in June 2022 and has improved since then. The most recent CPI data, for the 12 months ending in September 2024, showed inflation at 2.4%, close to the Fed’s 2% goal. Given this, in September 2024, the Fed decided it was time to begin cutting the rate. Some economists anticipate further cuts in 2025.

How the Federal Reserve Affects Your Finances

So how do the Fed’s decisions have an impact on you as an individual consumer? For one, banks base their prime rate on the federal funds rate; the prime rate is generally 3 percentage points higher. This rate in turn helps determine the rates that lenders offer their customers.

Fed rate hikes increase the cost of borrowing money for a mortgage or to pay for a car, or for carrying a credit card balance. Rate increases also create a more volatile stock market that could hurt 401(k) plans, increase the amount you earn on a CD, or affect what you might pay for a bond. (Fortunately there are some way to protect your money from inflation next time it rears its head. For example, if you can swing it, buying a house vs. being a renter may help protect you from inflation because you can lock in a fixed monthly payment long term. You can also read up on how to invest during a time of inflation.)

You may be scratching your head at why Fed rate cuts in the fall of 2024 didn’t immediately result in reduced interest rates on home mortgage loans. The short answer is that lenders look at multiple economic data points when they set rates, and the Fed’s action, while important, is not the only factor.

Prospective homebuyers may be wondering, is this a good time to buy a house? The answer is a very personal one, and chances are it won’t be found in scrutinizing the Fed’s movements. Emotions are also involved: Owning a home not only gives you a place where you enjoy living, but homeownership can help build generational wealth and some people may want to begin building that equity immediately, especially when future mortgage rates, like Fed rate cuts, are not within their control.

Recommended: What to Learn From Historical Mortgage Rate Fluctuations

The Takeaway

If you’re planning a vacation, you might not want to tuck away a book on the history of the Federal Reserve. (Or maybe you will. No judgment.) The Fed has a dual mandate to aim for maximum employment and price stability, and it has historically raised interest rates as the antidote for rising inflation.

If you find yourself musing about buying a home soon, it’s important to look at the history of mortgage rates to put the current conditions into context, and it helps to read up on the benefits of homeownership.

Looking for an affordable option for a home mortgage loan? SoFi can help: We offer low down payments (as little as 3% - 5%*) with our competitive and flexible home mortgage loans. Plus, applying is extra convenient: It's online, with access to one-on-one help.

FAQ

What is the prime rate?

The prime interest rate is the interest rate that banks charge the customers they consider to be the lowest risk — those who have a good credit history and are deemed least likely to default on a loan or miss payments.

What does the Federal Reserve do?

The Federal Reserve has several roles. It sets monetary policy, with a goal of maximum employment and stable inflation. It also regulates banks and other financial institutions. Its overall objective is to control risks to the economy and financial markets.

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SOHL-Q424-133

DD is a term in stock investing that stands for “due diligence.” It’s the process of researching and evaluating stocks before deciding to buy or sell. Due diligence gives investors a comprehensive understanding of a stock so they can make an informed decision about a trade. Although due diligence is not required, it is highly recommended.

DD Stock Meaning

Due diligence includes looking at a company’s financial records, comparing it to competitors, considering broader market conditions, and may include factoring in ESG metrics and more. Both quantitative and qualitative analysis is used to evaluate stocks.

Most of the information used for due diligence can be found on company websites, quarterly and annual reports, financial statements, and even on stock brokerage sites and trading apps.

To “DD” a stock means to do research and analysis on the company’s fundamentals before deciding whether to buy stocks. Due diligence can be carried out by individuals, companies, and institutional investors. If an investor buys a stock without doing any research into it, they put themselves at much greater risk of losses.

The process of due diligence has been around for ages, but the term DD has become particularly popular since the rise of meme stocks and trading lingo conceived in forums like the WallStreetBets subreddit.

Even if someone on social media or a professional trader is hyping up a stock and showing their huge profits, that doesn’t mean it’s a good idea to listen to their advice. As such, it may be a good idea to review stock market basics to get a sense of whether the hype is justified.

Some traders have put their entire life savings into trades without doing DD, just based on someone’s advice, and lost money as a result. Hence the term DD stock became commonly used – though it’s important to remember that losses can occur even when due diligence is done.

Items to Review When Conducting Due Diligence

There are many different measures used to evaluate stocks, and it’s up to each investor to decide how in-depth they want to go in their analysis. Every investor has different goals and risk tolerance, so it’s important to find the stocks that fit one’s particular criteria. For instance, one investor might be looking for stable, relatively low-risk, long-term growth while another might want to go for the potentially highest returns with a higher degree of risk.

Some of the most common items to review when conducting due diligence are:

Market Cap

One of the key factors to look at for due diligence is a company’s market cap. This is the total market value of the company’s shares. It’s also useful to look at how a company’s market cap has changed over time and consider how it might change in the future. For instance, an investor can look at stock price movements, ownership makeup of the company, and the market caps of competitors.

Researching market cap may indicate, for an investor, how volatile a stock might be, how many shareholders might own stock, and how big the end market is.

Large-cap and mega-cap companies tend to have more stable revenue streams and market caps since they are serving larger and broader markets, while mid-cap and small-cap companies may come with more risk and have the potential to see higher returns since they may only be serving a small segment of the market.

Revenue, Profit, and Margin Trends

Analyzing stock trends involves looking at the movement of metrics over time. These metrics include profits, revenue expenditures, profit margin trends, and return on equity. Trends can be monitored over weeks, months, and years.

A good way to start is to find the revenue and net income trends for the past two years, and looking at profit and loss statements. Those can be found on financial news sites and some trading apps that allow investors to search for stocks by name or ticker symbol. These documents may also help you get a sense of which way a stock’s profit margin is trending, if at all.

Investors can see whether trends are consistent or choppy, and if there are major price swings one way or the other. One can also see whether profits are rising, falling, or remaining about the same over time.

Competition

Due diligence also involves looking at a company’s competitors to understand whether the company one is considering investing in is performing better or worse. Competitors are companies in the same industry that are around the same size. In addition to competitors, investors can look at how the industry is performing compared to the overall market, and consider whether any external factors might affect industry performance in the near or long-term future.

Valuation Multiples

Other things to look at in the due diligence process are a company’s price-to-earnings (P/E) ratio, price-to-sales (P/S) ratio, price/earnings-to-growth (PEG) ratio, and overall valuation. Investors can compare the ratios of the company they are researching with those of its competitors.

This step helps figure out whether a company is a value stock or a growth stock, and gain an understanding of its profitability.

Management

The makeup and performance of a company’s management can have a huge effect on its performance. Investors can look at who is on the board of directors, whether the founders are still involved in the company, how long the company has been around, what proportion of shares are owned by managers, and whether major shareholders have been selling off shares.

If the founders and managers don’t own a lot of stock, or are selling it off at high rates, that may be a red flag.

Balance Sheet

A company’s balance sheet shows all of its assets, liabilities, and expenditures. Investors can look at how much debt a company has as well as its available cash balance.

Stock History

Another key part of due diligence is to look at how a stock has changed over time, including its price, liquidity, and dilution. Both short and long-term stock history may provide valuable insights.

Professional Reports

Professional analysts write reports about individual companies, industries, and the overall market. These can provide information that regular or inexperienced investors wouldn’t know.

Expectations and Risks

This step of due diligence involves looking at long-term profit estimates and industry trends. Investors can also look into joint development plans, intellectual property, and roadmaps to try and understand where a company is headed.

It’s critical for investors to also look at the industry and company risks involved with purchasing a stock. These include legal matters, global events, ESG factors, and more.

Ten Steps of Due Diligence

Below are ten steps investors may take when doing due diligence. Each step adds new information that builds upon the previous steps. By the end of the ten steps, an investor should have a solid understanding of the stock and be able to make an informed decision about whether to buy.

1.    Market Cap

2.    Revenue, Profit, and Margin Trends

3.    Industry and Competitors

4.    Valuation

5.    Management and Ownership

6.    Balance Sheet

7.    Stock Price History

8.    Stock Options and Dilution

9.    Expectations

10.    Risks

In the first steps, one simply gathers information without coming to any conclusions about the stock. As more information is gathered, it should start to become more clear what the pros and cons are of buying the stock. Investors can then make their decision accordingly.

The Takeaway

Doing due diligence research is a critical part of investing. Before purchasing any stock or asset, investors should have enough information to make an informed decision. Each of the steps of due diligence helps build a comprehensive picture of a stock’s past and potential future performance.

Ready to invest in your goals? It’s easy to get started when you open an investment account with SoFi Invest. You can invest in stocks, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), mutual funds, alternative funds, and more. SoFi doesn’t charge commissions, but other fees apply (full fee disclosure here).

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