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Q: What Are the Six Tenets of Dow Theory?

1. The Market Discounts Everything, 2. There Are Three Kinds of Market Trends, 3. Primary Trends are Split into Three Phases, 4. Indices Must Confirm Each Other, 5. Volume Should Confirm the Price, and 6. Trends Persist Until there is a Clear Reversal.

Oct

2023

Dow Theory: 6 Principles Explained

By Laurel Tincher | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

The Dow Theory is a framework for technical analysis of the market. It comprises several market concepts that attempt to explain how the stock market tends to behave.

The original financial theory posited that if the Dow Jones Industrial Average or the Dow Jones Transportation Average (then known as the Dow Jones Rail Average) advances significantly above a previous important average, the other average will do the same in the near future. Conversely, if one index begins to fall, Dow Theory forecasts that the other will likely follow suit.

Using this theory, investors can form a strategy to buy when the market is low and rising, and sell when it is high and going down.

The History of Dow Theory

Although created more than a century ago, Dow Theory remains popular with traders who commonly use it today. Charles H. Dow, founder of Dow Jones & Company, developed the financial theory in 1896 and created the first stock index, the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Dow, along with Charles Bergstresse and Edward Jones, also co-founded The Wall Street Journal, where Dow published portions of the Dow Theory.

Although Charles Dow died before he could publish the entirety of the ideas that make up the theory, others have published contributions to the theory over the years. Some of these publications include:

• The Stock Market Barometer by William P. Hamilton (1922)

• The Dow Theory by Robert Rhea (1932)

• How I Helped More than 10,000 Investors Profit in Stocks, by E. George Schaefer

• The Dow Theory Today, by Richard Russell (1961)

What Is Dow Theory?

The Dow Theory suggests that traders can use stock market trends to assess the overall economy and the state of various industries and then use it to form an investment strategy. Using the Dow theory, one could understand current market conditions and make predictions about the direction the market would take and, therefore, the direction individual stocks might take.

As the economy has changed over the years, parts of the theory have also shifted. For instance, originally, the theory centered around transportation stocks since the railroad industry was such a significant contributor to the economy at that time. While transportation stocks are still a crucial part of the economy, the Dow theory can apply to all types of industries, including newer ones, and forms the basis of many tools in technical analysis such as the Elliott Wave and accumulation and distribution (A/D).

There are six main principles that make up the Dow Theory. They are:

1. The market discounts everything.

2. There are three kinds of market trends.

3. Primary trends occur in three phases.

4. Indices must confirm each other.

5. Volume should confirm price.

6. Trends persist until there is a clear reversal.

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What Are the Six Tenets of Dow Theory?

Here’s more about each of the six principles and how they apply to both institutional and retail investors.

1. The Market Discounts Everything

Like the efficient markets hypothesis, this theory holds that market prices already reflect all available information, so only future events could affect stock prices. Since stocks are always trading at fair market value and are not under or overvalued, investors should make decisions based on market trends.

For instance, if investors believe a particular company will report positive earnings, the market will already reflect this before the announcement, with demand for shares going up before the release of the report.

Those who rely on technical analysis tend to believe in this theory, but investors who use fundamental analysis don’t agree that market value reflects a stock’s intrinsic value.

2. There Are Three Kinds of Market Trends

The second principle of Dow Theory is that there are three kinds of market trends, delineated by their duration.

Primary Trends

These last at least one year and are major market trends including bull trends, bear trends, or sideways trends. They are the most important trends for long term traders to look at, but the secondary and tertiary trends can help identify a specific opportunity such as a reversal in the market.

Secondary trends

These trends only last a few weeks or months. They generally include trends where the price moves in the opposite direction of the primary market trend.

Minor trends or Tertiary trends

Used primarily by day traders, these trends last less than three weeks.

3. Primary Trends are Split into Three Phases

The phases of trends depend on what happened to the price prior to the trend as well as market sentiment. The phase names are ordered differently in a bull and bear market. In a bull market, the phases are: accumulation, public participation, excess and distribution. In a bear market the order reverses.

Accumulation

Assets are low, so smart investors start to buy at this time before the market goes back up.

Public Participation

After the accumulation period and as the market starts to go up, a broader number of investors start to see the trend and begin buying assets, so prices increase significantly and quickly.

Excess and Distribution

In this phase, the general public buys, but informed investors see that the market is at a high and begin selling or shorting the market before it starts to decrease.

4. Indices Must Confirm Each Other

This principle claims that primary trends observed in one market index need to be the same as trends observed in another market index. Originally, the two important indices were the transportation index and the industrial average, but this has changed with the economy over the years. The same principle now applies to other indices. Although industry and transportation are still linked, today, many goods are digital so there can be an increase in the sale of goods without the same increase in transportation.

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5. Volume Should Confirm the Price

This principle states that a strong market trend should correspond with a high trading volume. If there isn’t a large volume in trading, then a trend is not as strong of an indicator of market direction. A low volume trend may not be an indicator of a larger market move.

6. Trends Persist Until there is a Clear Reversal

Another principle is that a market trend will continue until there is a strong indicator of a reversal. Essentially, the market will continue to rise or fall until a primary trend reversal occurs, so investors should not consider secondary and tertiary trend reversals as larger market trends.

Of course, it can be difficult to spot the difference between a primary and secondary trend, so sometimes a secondary trend may actually show a reversal in the market, and a primary trend may turn out to be a misleading secondary trend.

The Takeaway

The Dow Theory consists of six principles that may be used to help explain how the stock market behaves. Although the Dow Theory is over 100 years old, it is still popular and still widely used today for a reason.

Investors often use the Dow as they’re putting together an investment strategy. The Dow and other trading theories may be helpful as you build an online investment portfolio.

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Oct

2023

What Is Volatility Skew and How Can You Trade It?

By Laurel Tincher | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

What Is Volatility Skew?

Volatility skew, also known as Option Skew, is an options trading concept that refers to the difference in volatility between at-the-money options, in-the-money options, and out-of-the-money options. These terms in options trading refer to the relationship between the market price and the strike price of the contract.

Options contracts for the same underlying asset with the same expiration date but different strike prices have a range of implied volatility. In other words, it’s a graph plot of implied volatility points representing different strike prices or expiration dates for options contracts.

Each asset type looks different on a graph, but they tend to resemble a smile or a smirk. The volatility skewness is the slope of the implied volatility on that graph. A balanced curve is called a “volatility smile,” and if it is unbalanced to one side it is called a “volatility smirk.”

What Is Implied Volatility (IV)?

Implied volatility, denoted by the sigma symbol (σ), is an estimate of the volatility that a particular underlying asset will have between the current moment and the time when the options contract for the asset expires. It’s basically the uncertainty that investors have about an underlying stock and how likely traders think the stock will reach a particular price on a particular date.

The volatility of an underlying asset changes constantly. The more the price of the asset changes, the more volatility it has. But implied volatility doesn’t necessarily follow the same pattern because it depends on how investors view the asset and whether they predict it will have volatility. Implied volatility is usually shown using standard deviations and percentages over a particular period of time.

Option pricing assumes that options for the same asset that have the same expiration have the same implied volatility, even if they have different strike prices. But investors are actually willing to overpay for downside-striked stock options because they think there is more volatility to the downside than the upside.

Different types of options contracts have different levels of volatility, and it’s important for traders to understand this when determining their options trading strategy.

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What Does Volatility Skew Mean for Investors?

Volatility depends on supply and demand as well as investor sentiment about the options. The volatility skew helps investors understand the market and decide whether to buy or sell particular contracts. It’s an important indicator for investors who trade options.

Stocks that are decreasing in price tend to have more volatility. If there is implied volatility of an underlying entity, the price of an option increases, resulting in a downside equity skew.

If a skew has higher implied volatility, this means prices will be higher. So investors can look at volatility skews to find low- and high-priced contracts to decide whether to buy or sell.

There are two types of volatility skew. Vertical skew shows the volatility skew of different strike prices of options contracts that have the same expiration date. This is more commonly used by individual traders. Horizontal skew shows the volatility skew of expiration dates of options contracts that have the same strike price.

How Do You Measure Volatility Skew?

Investors measure volatility skew by plotting graph points of different implied volatility of strike prices or expiration dates. For example, a trader could look at a list of bid/ask prices for options contracts for a particular asset that expire on the same date. They take the midpoint implied volatility points from the bid/ask prices and chart them out.

The tilt of the skew changes over time as market sentiment changes. Observing these changes can give investors additional insights into the direction the market is heading, which they can use in skew trading. For instance, if the stock price increases in value significantly, traders might think it is overbought and therefore that it will decrease in value in the future. This will change the skew so its curve increases, showing more pressure for on-the-money or downside put options.

There are five factors that influence the price of options:

• Underlying stock or asset market price

• Strike price

• Time to expiry

• Interest rate

• Implied volatility

Investors can calculate the volatility at different strike prices and graph those out to see the volatility skew.

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How Do You Trade With Volatility Skew?

As mentioned above, the two types of volatility skew are horizontal and vertical. These can both be used in trading.

Horizontal Skew

There are many factors that drive changes in horizontal skew, such as product announcements, earnings reports, and global events. For instance, if traders are uncertain about the short-term future of a stock because of an upcoming earnings report, the implied volatility may increase and the horizontal skew could flatten.

Traders look for opportunities by using calendar spreads to look at the differences between option expiration implied volatility. Where there is implied volatility in a horizontal skew, there may be inefficient pricing that traders can take advantage of.

If the implied volatility is higher than expected in the front month, the option contract will be relatively more expensive, which is referred to as positive horizontal skew.

On the other hand, if the implied volatility of the back month is higher than expected this is known as negative horizontal skew or “reverse calendar spread.” In this situation traders would sell the back month and buy the front month because they can profit when the price of the underlying asset increases before the back month contract expires.

For example, a trader might look at the market for a stock and find that there is a horizontal skew in the option calls, meaning traders are putting in buy and sell orders with the prediction that it’s more likely the stock will increase a lot in the long term than in the short term.

If the trader doesn’t think the current market predictions are correct, they can use a reverse calendar call spread, similar to shorting a stock and predicting it will go down. If the price of the stock plummets, both the long- and short-term contracts will decrease in value and the trader can buy them back at a lower price than they sold them for.

In this case the trader can also profit if the implied volatility of the options decreases. They chose to sell when the implied volatility was high during the front month, so if the implied volatility decreases they can buy back at a lower price.

Although this has the potential to be a profitable way to trade, it is also risky because it’s a short call that requires a lot of margin. Stock exchanges require traders to have significant funds in their account if they want to do this type of trade.

💡 Quick Tip: Options can be a cost-efficient way to place certain trades, because you typically purchase options contracts, not the underlying security. That said, options trading can be risky, and best done by those who are not entirely new to investing.

Vertical Skew

Many investors prefer trading with vertical skew because it is simpler than horizontal skew and requires less margin and, therefore, less risk. Also referred to as volatility skew and option skew, vertical skew looks at the differences between the implied volatility of different stock strike prices that have the same expiration date. Using vertical skew, traders can find opportunities to trade debit spreads and credit spreads, finding the best strike prices to buy or sell.

For example, a trader might find a stock they believe will increase in value before its option contract expires. So they want to find a bull put spread to buy to get profits when the price increases. They will have many strikes to choose from, so they can use vertical skew to identify which are the best trades, meaning those that are low or high priced. The trader can identify one with a good price to buy, wait until it increases and sell it for a profit.

The Takeaway

Options trading is popular with many investors, and volatility skew is one way for options traders to evaluate the price of options contracts. Traders might look at either horizontal or vertical skew to make a decision about whether an options contract purchase makes sense for their investing strategy.

However, options trading is risky. It’s generally best for experienced investors and not for beginners. If you’re interested in options, it’s wise to talk to a financial professional before you do anything else.

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SoFi Invest®
INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE
SoFi Invest encompasses two distinct companies, with various products and services offered to investors as described below: Individual customer accounts may be subject to the terms applicable to one or more of these platforms.
1) Automated Investing and advisory services are provided by SoFi Wealth LLC, an SEC-registered investment adviser (“SoFi Wealth“). Brokerage services are provided to SoFi Wealth LLC by SoFi Securities LLC.
2) Active Investing and brokerage services are provided by SoFi Securities LLC, Member FINRA (www.finra.org)/SIPC(www.sipc.org). Clearing and custody of all securities are provided by APEX Clearing Corporation.
For additional disclosures related to the SoFi Invest platforms described above please visit SoFi.com/legal.
Neither the Investment Advisor Representatives of SoFi Wealth, nor the Registered Representatives of SoFi Securities are compensated for the sale of any product or service sold through any SoFi Invest platform.

Claw Promotion: Customer must fund their Active Invest account with at least $25 within 30 days of opening the account. Probability of customer receiving $1,000 is 0.028%. See full terms and conditions.

Third-Party Brand Mentions: No brands, products, or companies mentioned are affiliated with SoFi, nor do they endorse or sponsor this article. Third-party trademarks referenced herein are property of their respective owners.

Financial Tips & Strategies: The tips provided on this website are of a general nature and do not take into account your specific objectives, financial situation, and needs. You should always consider their appropriateness given your own circumstances.

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Oct

2023

What Is a Financial Instrument? Types & Asset Classes Explained

By Rebecca Lake | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

A financial instrument is simply a contract between entities that represents the exchange of money for a certain asset. Financial instruments include most types of investments: cash, stocks, bonds, mutual funds, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), certificates of deposit (CDs), loans, derivatives, and more.

Financial instruments facilitate the movement of capital through the markets and the broader economic system. While this may take different forms, the flow of capital remains a central feature.

What Is a Financial Instrument?

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) defines a financial instrument as cash; evidence of an ownership interest in a company or other entity; or a contract. A financial instrument confers either a right or an obligation to the holder of the instrument, and is an asset that can be created, modified, traded, or settled.

Investors can trade financial instruments on a public exchange. The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) is an example of a spot market in which investors can trade equity instruments for immediate delivery.

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Financial Instrument vs Security

A security is a type of financial instrument with a fluctuating monetary value that carries a certain amount of risk for the individual or entity that holds it. Investors can trade securities through a public exchange or over-the-counter market.

The federal government regulates securities and the securities industry under a series of laws, including the Securities Act of 1933, the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, and the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010.

All securities are financial instruments but not all financial instruments are securities.

Like financial instruments, securities fall into different groups or categories. The four types of securities include:

• Equities. Equities represent an ownership interest in a company. Stocks and mutual funds are examples of equity securities.

• Debt. Debt refers to money lent by investors to corporate or government entities. Corporate and municipal bonds are two examples of debt securities.

• Derivatives. Derivatives are financial contracts whose value is tied to an underlying asset. Futures and stock options are derivative instruments.

• Hybrid. Hybrid securities combine aspects of debt and equity. Convertible bonds are a type of hybrid instrument.

Types of Financial Instruments

Financial instruments are not all alike. There are different types of financial instruments in different asset classes. Certain financial instruments are more complex in nature than others, meaning they may require more knowledge or expertise to handle or trade.

1. Cash Instruments

Cash instruments are financial instruments whose value fluctuates based on changing market conditions. Cash instruments can be securities traded on an exchange, such as stocks, or other types of financial contracts.

For example, a certificate of deposit account (CD) is a type of cash instrument. Loans also fall under the cash instrument heading as they represent an agreement or contract between two parties where money is exchanged.

2. Derivative Instruments

Derivative instruments or derivatives draw their value from an underlying asset, and fluctuate based on the changing value of the underlying security or benchmark.

As mentioned, options are a type of derivative instrument, as are futures contracts, forwards, and swaps.

3. Foreign Exchange Instruments

Foreign exchange instruments are financial instruments associated with international markets. For example, in forex trading investors trade currencies from different currencies through global exchanges.

Asset Classes of Financial Instruments

Financial instruments can also be broken down by asset class.

4. Debt-Based Financial Instruments

Companies use debt-based financial instruments as a means of raising capital. For example, say a municipal government wants to launch a road improvement project but lacks the funding to do so. They may issue one or more municipal bonds to raise the money they need.

Investors buy these bonds, contributing the capital needed for the road project. The municipal government then pays the investors back their principal at a later date, along with interest.

5. Equity-Based Financial Instruments

Equity-based financial instruments convey some form of ownership of an entity. If you buy 100 shares of stock in XYZ company, for example, you’re purchasing an equity-based instrument.

Equity-based instruments can help companies raise capital, but the company does not have to pay anything back to investors. Instead, investors may receive dividends from the stock shares they own, or realize profits if they’re able to sell those shares for a capital gain.

Are Commodities Financial Instruments?

Commodities such as oil or gas, precious metals, agricultural products and other raw materials are not considered financial instruments. A commodity itself, such as pork or copper, doesn’t direct the flow of capital.

That said, there are certain instruments whereby commodities are traded, including stocks, exchange-traded funds, and futures contracts.

A futures contract represents an agreement to buy or sell a certain commodity at a specific price at a future date. So, for example, an orange grower might sell a futures contract agreeing to sell a certain amount of their crop for a set price. An orange juice company could then buy a contract to purchase oranges at X price.

For the everyday investor, futures trading in commodities typically doesn’t mean you plan to take delivery of two tons of coffee beans or 4,000 bushels of corn. Instead, you buy a futures contract with the intention of selling it before it expires.

💡 Quick Tip: It’s smart to invest in a range of assets so that you’re not overly reliant on any one company or market to do well. For example, by investing in different sectors you can add diversification to your portfolio, which may help mitigate some risk factors over time.

Uses of Financial Instruments

Investors and businesses may use financial instrument for the following purposes:

1. As a Means of Payment

You already use financial instruments in your everyday life. When you write a check to pay a bill or use cash to buy groceries, you’re exchanging a financial instrument for goods and services.

Likewise, business entities may charge purchases to a business credit card. They’re borrowing money from the credit card company and paying it back at a later date, often with interest.

2. Risk Transfer

Investors use financial instruments to transfer risk when trading options and other derivative instruments, such as interest rate swaps. With options, for example, an investor has the option to buy or sell an underlying asset at a specified price on or before a predetermined date. A contract exists between the individual who writes the option and the individual who buys it. This type of financial instrument allows an investor to speculate about which way prices for a particular security may move in the future.

3. To Store Value

Businesses often use financial instruments in this way. For example, say you default on a credit card balance. Your credit card company can write off the amount as a bad debt and sell it to a debt collector. Meanwhile, businesses with outstanding invoices they’re awaiting payment on can use factoring or accounts receivables financing to borrow against their value.

4. To Raise Capital

Companies may issue stocks or bonds in order to get access to capital that they can invest in their business. In this case, the financial instruments could be a means of raising capital for one party and a store of value for the other.

Importance of Financial Instruments

Financial instruments are central to not only the stock market, but also the financial and economic system as a whole. They provide structures and legal obligations that facilitate the regulated exchange of capital via investing, lending and borrowing, speculation and growth.

In short, financial instruments keep the financial markets moving, and they also help businesses to keep their doors open and allow consumers to manage their finances, plan for the future, and invest with the hope of future gains.

For example, you may also have a savings account that you use to hold your emergency fund, an Individual Retirement Account (IRA) that you use to save for retirement and a taxable brokerage account for trading stocks. Your checking account is one of the basic tools you might use to pay bills or make purchases.

You might be paying down a mortgage or student loans while occasionally using credit cards to spend. All of these financial instruments allow you to direct the flow of money from one place to another.

The Takeaway

Financial instruments are integral to every aspect of the financial world, and they also play a significant part in business transactions and day-to-day financial management. If you trade stocks, invest in an IRA, or write checks to your landlord, then you’re contributing to the movement of capital with various financial instruments. Understanding the different types of financial instruments is the first step in becoming a steward of your own money.

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SoFi Invest®
INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE
SoFi Invest encompasses two distinct companies, with various products and services offered to investors as described below: Individual customer accounts may be subject to the terms applicable to one or more of these platforms.
1) Automated Investing and advisory services are provided by SoFi Wealth LLC, an SEC-registered investment adviser (“SoFi Wealth“). Brokerage services are provided to SoFi Wealth LLC by SoFi Securities LLC.
2) Active Investing and brokerage services are provided by SoFi Securities LLC, Member FINRA (www.finra.org)/SIPC(www.sipc.org). Clearing and custody of all securities are provided by APEX Clearing Corporation.
For additional disclosures related to the SoFi Invest platforms described above please visit SoFi.com/legal.
Neither the Investment Advisor Representatives of SoFi Wealth, nor the Registered Representatives of SoFi Securities are compensated for the sale of any product or service sold through any SoFi Invest platform.

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Shares of ETFs must be bought and sold at market price, which can vary significantly from the Fund’s net asset value (NAV). Investment returns are subject to market volatility and shares may be worth more or less their original value when redeemed. The diversification of an ETF will not protect against loss. An ETF may not achieve its stated investment objective. Rebalancing and other activities within the fund may be subject to tax consequences.

Tax Information: This article provides general background information only and is not intended to serve as legal or tax advice or as a substitute for legal counsel. You should consult your own attorney and/or tax advisor if you have a question requiring legal or tax advice.

Financial Tips & Strategies: The tips provided on this website are of a general nature and do not take into account your specific objectives, financial situation, and needs. You should always consider their appropriateness given your own circumstances.

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Oct

2023

What is the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)?

By Brian O'Connell | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is an investment assessment formula that shines a light on the relationship between the systematic risk in a security and its estimated return. Investors use the CAPM to determine whether an investment’s expected return is the same as its risk-free return, and to determine an asset’s expected returns.

CAPM Defined

The Capital Asset Pricing Model makes the process of measuring investment return and risk more efficient, to determine whether a particular asset offers an acceptable rate of return.

CAPM is especially helpful when an investor faces significant investment risk, such as when trading equity options. The formula helps the investor determine whether the transaction has an acceptable measure of risk. By using CAPM, the investor is able to accurately assess if the potential investment return on a security is worth taking on.

Evaluating the fair value of a security is an ongoing endeavor, as investment risk factors and other variables change all the time. When those risks shift (think interest rate changes, company management changes, or a geopolitical crisis erupts, among other potential threats), investors can still use the capital asset pricing model to weigh an investment against constant risk and return variables.

Investors can factor market impactors, like interest rate flows, currency valuations, and stock market cycles, among other issues, into their CAPM analysis to better weigh risk versus return. Basically, the bigger the chance of risk, the more important CAPM becomes to investors weighing that risk against potential returns.

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What Is the CAPM Formula?

CAPM can help evaluate an investment’s viability in a time of significant market angst, by measuring three important barometers in an investment equation – risk-free return, the market risk premium, and the investment beta.

Let’s take a look at how CAPM is calculated with all three factors included.

The (capital asset pricing model) CAPM formula is represented as below:

Expected Rate of Return = Risk-Free Premium + Beta * (Market Risk Premium) Ra = Rrf + βa * (Rm – Rrf)

The calculation reflects a series of financial metrics, which taken together can offer a balanced look at a potential investment’s risk and return, with the aforementioned metrics front and center.

Risk-Free Return (Rrf)

This metric represents the value given to an investment (like a stock or commodity trading, for example) that provides return with no risk. U.S. Treasury bond, backed by the full faith and credit of the United States government, are a good example of risk-free return in action.

Since the U.S. government guarantees the bonds, and there is virtually zero chance of the U.S. defaulting on its debt obligations, Treasuries are considered among the safest investments available. That’s a big reason why risk-free return value reflects the yield delivered by a 10-year U.S. government bond.

The Market Risk Premium (Rm-Rrf)

This financial metric represents the return an investor earns – or anticipates earning – from owning a more risk-abundant portfolio. The MPA is an important component of CAPM, as it enables an investor to assess risk and decide if the market premium rate is superior to an investment in a risk-free investment like U.S. bonds.

The Beta (Ba)

Wall Street analysts rely on beta to weigh the volatility of a given security against a broader market.

For instance, an investor looking to buy 100 shares of an emerging biotech company can use beta to evaluate that investment and see how it may perform if the broader stock market turns volatile. In that scenario, that biotech stock’s beta may be 13%, which means it would trigger a 130% variation from any significant (based on the exact calculation) of any shift in the broader stock market. Beta is always equal to 1 in any market evaluation equation, meaning it’s parallel to any potential shifts in a broader market

CAPM Formula Explained

Factoring in each component to the CAPM equation, the resulting formula looks like this:

Expected return = Risk-free rate + (beta x market risk premium).

The risk-free component focuses on the time value of money, or the concept that a cash amount in present form is potentially higher than the same amount of cash down the road, primarily because of money’s current earnings potential. A CAPM formula may also factor in excess risks taken on by an investor.

Next, beta is assessed to figure out just how much risk is on the table relative to the broader market. For instance, if ABC stock offers more risk than the broader market, its beta is higher than 1 (one). A beta that is lower than 1 assumes the investment will curb portfolio risk, which may make a security more palatable to risk-averse investors.

With the beta calculated, beta is multiplied by the market risk premium, and the result (value) is added into the investment’s risk-free rate to provide the security’s estimated rate of return.

In conducting a CAPM exercise, the investor must acknowledge some level of risk in any investment, primarily in two ways.

• Loss is always possible, as common market securities like stocks, commodities, funds, or currencies may lose money, making them a depreciation risk.

• The higher level of risk in a specific security often correlates to a higher potential investment return, as history shows that specific investments carry more risks and more rewards than others (stock options and future.

Advantages to Capital Asset Pricing Model

The chief advantages to the capital asset pricing model are that it’s relatively simple and easy to use, it takes systemic risk into consideration, it has a wide range of potential uses (when other models may not do the trick, for instance), and for that reason, is often seen as a superior model to others, such as the WACC formula.

Problems with the CAPM

While the CAPM is an extremely useful tool for investors, it does have some drawbacks. One such drawback is the reliance on the risk-free rate and the beta. As such, CAPM must be constantly recalculated in order to remain useful. It also does not account for transaction costs such as taxes and fees, which could make a potential investment less favorable than the model shows.

Efficient Frontiers and the Capital Asset Pricing Model

In theory, if an investor adhered perfectly to CAPM all of their investments would exist on the efficient frontier, meaning that all returns justify the risks taken. The efficient frontier is the optimal baseline for a portfolio, Since every investment comes with some risk, it’s important to make sure that the returns correspond to the level of risk.

CAPM and the Security Market Line (SML)

The security market line, or SML, is a graphical representation of the CAPM formula, and shows expected returns for a security. Specifically, it shows the relationship between beta and expected return. When used in conjunction with the CAPM formula, investors can use the SML to try and get a sense of whether a prospective investment offers a good enough expected return when all risks are taken into account.

Practical Value of the CAPM

Many investors probably wonder if, when it comes down to it, CAPM has much practical value. While that will ultimately depend on the individual investor, it may be fair to say that the CAPM has value in that it’s widely used, and can give investors a broad or general idea of the risks and potential returns involved with a single investment. Again, it’s not the only model or formula that does that – but can be yet another tool that an investor can have in their analytical tool box.

The Takeaway

CAPM can help investors understand how the risk and return of a given investment relate to each other. Having the answer to that question can help investors make more knowledgeable portfolio decisions on an ongoing basis.

CAPM is also a fairly high-level investing concept, and one that many investors may never use or encounter. That’s not to say it doesn’t have its uses – but if you feel that it’s over your head or too advanced, you can always consult with a financial professional for guidance.

For a limited time, opening and funding an Active Invest account gives you the opportunity to get up to $1,000 in the stock of your choice.

FAQ

What are some of the assumptions built into the CAPM model?

A few assumptions built into the CAPM model are that all investors are naturally risk-averse, that investors are evaluating investments within the same time period, and that investors have unlimited capital to borrow at a relatively risk-free rate of return.

What are alternatives to the CAPM?

Some alternatives to the CAPM include arbitrage pricing theory, or APT, and the Fama-French Model. There are others out there, too, which may or may not be perfect substitutes or alternatives to the CAPM.

What is the International Capital Asset Pricing Model (ICAPM)?

The International Capital Asset Pricing Model, or ICAPM, is more or less an extension of the CAPM, and incorporates or includes international investments.

Photo credit: iStock/PeopleImages

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Oct

2023

Understanding the Different Stock Order Types

By Austin Kilham | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off

There are several ways to execute stock trades, from the common and relatively simple market order, to more complex stop orders and timing instructions. Each type of order is a tool tailored to specific situations and needs of an investor or trader, and can result in a different outcome.

It’s important to understand the types of order in the stock market thoroughly to know when and how to use them. That way you’ll be able to know which order will best help you reach your goals as you buy and sell stocks.

Stock Order Types Explained

Different types of stock orders have different outcomes for investors. The best stock order type for you will depend on your investing style and risk appetite. You’ll need to understand each of them, particularly if you’re working with a self-directed brokerage account.

Recommended: 50 Investment Terms Decoded

Here’s a look at the different types of stock orders:

Market Order

Market orders are one of the most common types of trade you’ll encounter. A market order is an order to buy or sell a security as soon as possible at its current price. These types of orders make sense when you want to get a transaction done as quickly as possible.

A market order is guaranteed to be carried out, or executed. Investors buying stocks with a market order will pay an amount at or near the “ask” price. Sellers will sell for a price at or near the “bid” price.

However, while you’re guaranteed that your order will execute, you do not get a guarantee on the exact price. In volatile markets, stock prices may move quickly, deviating from the last quoted price, although.

For example, if you put in an order to buy a stock at an ask price of $50 per share, but many other buy orders are executed first, your market order may execute at a higher price as demand rises.

Recommended: What Is a Market-On-Open Order (MOO)?

Limit Order

Limit orders are another common type of stock orders. They are orders to buy or sell stock at a specific price or better within a certain time period. There are two basic types of limit orders:

• Buy limit orders can only be executed at the limit price or lower. For example, say you want to buy shares in a company only when prices hit $40. By placing a limit order for that amount, you can ensure your order only executes when that price, or a lower price, is reached.

• A sell limit order executes when stock hits a certain price or higher. For example, if you don’t want to sell your stock until it hits $40 or more, a sell limit will ensure that you own the stock until it hits that price.

Stop Order

In addition to the more commonly used market orders and limit orders, brokerage firms may also allow investors to use special orders and trading instructions, such as the stop order, also known as a stop-loss order. Stop orders are orders to buy or sell a stock when it reaches a predetermined price, known as the stop price. Stop orders help investors lock in profits and limit losses.

You enter a buy stop order at a price that is above current market price, which can help protect profit, especially if you are selling short. On the other hand, a sell stop order is an order to sell a stock at a price below the current market price, which can help you limit their losses.

When a stock’s price reaches the stop order price, the stop order becomes a market order. Like a market order, the stop price is not a guaranteed price. Fast moving markets can cause the execution price to be quite different.

Stop-Limit Order

Stop-limit orders are a sort of hybrid between stop orders and limit orders. Investors set a stop price, and when a stock hits that price, the stop order becomes limit order, executed at a specific price or better.

Stop-limit orders help investors avoid the risk that a stop order will execute at an unexpected price. That gives them more control over the price at which they’ll buy or sell.

For example, say you want to buy a stock currently priced at $100 but only if it shows signs that it’s on a clear upward trajectory. You could place a stop-limit order with a stop price of $110 and a limit of $115. When the stock reaches $110, the stop order becomes a limit order, and it will only execute when prices reach $115 or higher.

💡 Quick Tip: The best stock trading app? That’s a personal preference, of course. Generally speaking, though, a great app is one with an intuitive interface and powerful features to help make trades quickly and easily.

Trailing Stop Loss Order

Investors who already own stocks and want to lock in gains may use these relatively uncommon orders. While stop-loss orders help investors buy or sell when a stock hits a certain stop price, trailing stop loss orders put guardrails around an investment.

For example, if you buy a stock at $100 per share, you might put a trailing stop loss order of 10% on the stock. That way, if, at any time, the stock’s share price dips below 10%, the brokerage will execute the order to sell.

Bracket Order (BO)

Bracket orders are similar to stop-loss orders in that they’re designed to help investors or traders lock in their profits or gains. They effectively create an order “bracket” with two orders: A buy order with a high-side sell limit, and a sell order with a low-side limit.

With a bracket order set up and in place, an order will execute when a security’s value goes outside of the predetermined range, either too high or too low.

Timing Instructions

Investors use a set of tools, known as timing instructions, to modify the market orders and limit orders and tailor them to more specific needs.

Day Orders

If an investor does not specify when an order will expire, the brokerage enters it as a day order. At the end of the trading day, it expires. If at that point, the brokerage has not executed the trade, it will have to be reentered the following day.

Good ‘Til Canceled (GTC)

A GTC order allows investors to put a time restriction on an order so that it lasts until the completion or cancellation of an order. Brokerage firms typically place a time limit on how long a GTC order can remain open.

Immediate or Cancel (IOC)

IOC orders allow investors to ask that the brokerage execute the buying or selling of stock immediately. It also allows for partial execution of the order. So, if an investor wants to buy 1,000 shares of a company but it’s only possible to buy 500 shares immediately, these instructions will alert the broker to buy the shares available. If the broker can not fulfill the order, or any portion of the order, immediately, the broker will cancel it.

Fill-Or-Kill (FOK)

Unlike IOC orders, fill-or-kill orders do not permit partial execution. The brokerage must execute the order immediately and in its entirety, or cancel it.

All-Or-None (AON)

Similar to FOKs, all-or-none orders require the complete execution of the order. However, AONs do not require immediate execution, rather the order remains active until the broker executes or cancels it.

💡 Quick Tip: Are self-directed brokerage accounts cost efficient? They can be, because they offer the convenience of being able to buy stocks online without using a traditional full-service broker (and the typical broker fees).

Which Order Type Is Best?

The type of order or special instructions you use when buying and selling stock depends on your goals with the transaction. Most beginner investors probably only need to execute market orders and perhaps limit orders.

Those trying to execute more complicated trades in shorter time frames, such as professional traders, may be more likely to use stop orders and special timing instructions.

The Takeaway

There are numerous types of stock orders, including limit orders, stop orders, bracket orders, and more. Investors and traders can use each individually or in concert to execute their strategy, though beginner investors likely won’t dig too far into their order tool kit when learning to navigate the markets.

Before using any of trade orders or timing instructions it’s critical to understand their function and to think carefully about how and whether they apply to your specific needs. Using the right order for your situation can potentially help you reduce risk and protect your portfolio, no matter how many stocks you own.

For a limited time, opening and funding an Active Invest account gives you the opportunity to get up to $1,000 in the stock of your choice.

FAQ

What is the safest type of stock order to use?

The stock order type that is all but guaranteed to execute per an investor’s desires is a market order, which executes immediately and at a given price. Other order types depend on specific conditions dictated by the investor and the market.

What is the difference between stop-loss vs stop-limit orders?

The main difference between a stop-loss order and a stop-limit order is that a stop-loss order guarantees to execute a market order if the stock hits the stop price, while a stop-limit order triggers a limit order when the assigned value is reached.

What is a standard stop-loss rule?

An example of a more or less standard stop-loss rule would be setting the stop-loss order parameters at 2% of the buy price, which would mean that an investor is not putting more than 2% of their initial investment at risk.

Photo credit: iStock/Alina Vasylieva

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