Sep
08
2023
Pairs Trading, Explained

Pairs Trading Strategy 101: A Guide for Novice Investors

By | Financial Independence, Growing Wealth, invest, Investing, Terminology | Comments Off on Pairs Trading Strategy 101: A Guide for Novice Investors

Pairs trading is a market-neutral trading tactic that allows investors to use the historical performance of stocks to place long and short bets to make big profits.

Pairs trading was first used in the mid-1980s as a way of using technical and statistical analysis as a way to find potential profits. It remained the province of Wall Street professionals until the internet opened online trading and real-time financial information to the public. Before long, there were seasoned amateur investors using pairs trades to make money, while managing their risk exposure.

What Is Pairs Trading?

Pairs trading is a day trading strategy in which an investor takes a long position and a short position in two securities that have shown a high historical correlation, but which have fallen momentarily out of sync.

The correlation between the two securities refers to the degree that two securities move in relation to one other. More specifically, correlation is a statistical measurement that measures the relationship between the historical performance of two securities.

It’s usually expressed as something called a “correlation coefficient.” This measure falls between -1.0 and +1.0, with negative 1 indicating that two securities move in exactly opposite ways. A correlation coefficient of positive one indicates that the two securities move up and down at exactly the same times under the same conditions.

What Types of Assets Are Traded in Pairs?

Numerous types of financial assets can be traded in pairs, and the list includes stocks, commodities, options, funds, and even currencies. In one sense, the asset or security at the heart of the trade is somewhat irrelevant, as traders are looking to take advantage of the difference in value (and thus, a different investment position) between the two. Again, the whole goal is to try and beat the average stock market return.

Often, though, pairs trading is discussed in relation to stocks, as that may be the asset class that most trading discussions revolve around.

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Pros and Cons of Pairs Trading

Pairs trading is something that most investors can take part in, assuming they know the risks of playing the market. That’s to say that there are pros and cons to pairs trading, and investors should review them before engaging in it.

Pros of Pairs Trading

The biggest pro to pairs trading is that there is the potential for profit, or at least bigger returns than investors may have otherwise generated by executing a different investing strategy. There’s also the potential to generate positive returns no matter what the overall market conditions are. Further, pairs trading may actually be a way to mitigate risk when investing in stocks, as there are only two trades involved, and in some ways, the mechanics of the trade setup can benefit the trader — but note that this is not to say that it’s a safe or risk-free strategy.

Cons of Pairs Trading

Cons of pairs trading include the possibility of the trading model failing due to faulty assumptions on the part of a trader — that is, historical correlation between two stocks may not mean that the correlation has continued. Traders should also know that pairs trading involves fast movements, and that there’s a chance trades may not execute at the desired time — this could stymie the strategy’s effectiveness. For traders, it may be worth looking at different stock exchanges and different investment platforms to get a sense of where the strategy may be the most effective.

It may also be helpful to understand the concept of stock volume in order to have a better chance of success with the strategy.

Pairs Trading Example

In a pairs trade, an investor will look for two separate securities that have a historically high correlation, but have fallen out of sync. If “stock Alpha” and “stock Beta” have historically risen and fallen in step, they’d have a very high correlation, maybe as high as positive of 0.95. But, for whatever reason, the two stocks have diverged, with Alpha racking up big gains, while Beta languished. That has knocked the short-term correlation coefficient between the two down to paltry 0.50.

This is the most common scenario for a pairs trade. In it, an investor will take a long position on stock Alpha, which has underperformed. At the same time, they’ll short stock Beta, which has outperformed. What they’re doing in a pairs trade is betting that the relationship between the two stocks will return to their historical norm, either by one security falling, the other one rising, or some combination of the two.

Pairs Trading Strategy: Market Neutral

Pairs trading is considered a “market-neutral” strategy. There are many of these strategies, which share a common aim to profit from both rising and falling security prices, while sidestepping the risks of the broader market.

Many hedge funds will employ market-neutral strategies, because they are paid based on their absolute returns. A common market-neutral trade may involve taking a 50% long and a 50% short position in one industry, sector or market. They usually do so to take advantage of pricing discrepancies within those areas. In addition to earning a return, their main goal is often to hedge out as much systematic risk as possible.

There are also market-neutral mutual funds, which can vary wildly in what they return investors, largely because there are so many market-neutral strategies, and ways to execute them. Interested investors may want to learn the fund’s particular approach to the strategy before jumping in.

How to Successfully Execute a Pairs Trade

For investors who are ready to incorporate pairs trading into their investment strategy, there are several steps they need to take in order to be successful.

Step One: Decide on Trading Criteria

The first step is to decide what securities to consider for the trade, and can be the most time-consuming in the entire process. This involves researching a vast array of possible investment pairs to find ones that have a historically high correlation coefficient but have since drifted apart. Then investors will want to build and test a model for those securities, using those results to arrive at the best possible buy-and-sell guidelines, as well as how long they intend to stay in a trade.

Step Two: Select Specific Securities

After the investor has settled on a process to select candidates for a pairs trade, it’s time to put that process into action and find securities that currently meet that criteria. Some investors may use manual research, while others prefer mathematical models. Regardless, investors need to think of how they want to use a pairs trade.

For investors who want to get in and out of a trade in a matter of hours or days, they’ll need to run their process to find possible trades on a regular basis. But investors whose trades will last for months won’t need to run their research as often.

Step Three: Execute the Trade

Once an investor has confirmed that a trade fits all their criteria, it’s time to execute the trade. With a pairs trade, there are small but important details to consider. For instance, most experienced pairs traders will execute the short side of the trade before making the long side.

Step Four: Manage the Trade

With the trade in place, the investor now has to wait and watch. This means sizing up the activity of the two securities in the trade to see if they’re approaching the criteria that would trigger one of the predetermined buy-and-sell rules. It also means watching the broader market, as well as any news that might have an impact on either security in the trade. Experienced traders will also constantly adjust the trade’s risk/return profile as markets shift and other news emerges.

Managing the trade is as important as setting it up. If a trader has a pairs trade they expect to last a month, but it reaches 50% of its profit objective in the first day after execution, what should they do? They may choose to close out of the trade that day, because the additional return isn’t worth the risk or the opportunity cost. But they also have other options. They might initiate a trailing stop loss level in the two positions as a way of locking in a portion of the profit. The decision isn’t easy, and may involve a host of other considerations.

Step Five: Close the Trade

The final step is to close the trade. But even this can come with questions and challenges, especially with trades that haven’t worked out, and whose predetermined durations are coming to an end. But it can also be the case with trades that have succeeded and are nearing their time limit. The urge to give a trade more time to turn around — or to do just a little better — has the potential to be the undoing of an otherwise successful trader.

That’s why experienced pairs traders often stress discipline as being as important as research, close monitoring and clear rules when it comes to earning consistent profits with the strategy.

History of Pairs Trading

Pairs trading is a somewhat higher-level trading strategy (though relatively simplistic at the same time), and it was actually first developed by technical analyst researchers at Morgan Stanley during the 1980s. Specifically, Nunzio Tartaglia led the charge, who ran the “quant” group at the firm.

It has since been adopted by traders and investors, big and small.

Investing With SoFi

Pairs trading is a trading strategy that involves the simultaneous purchase and sale of securities in anticipation of a price trend. The idea is that the two securities typically have shown a high historical correlation, but have fallen momentarily out of sync. The investor making the pairs trade is betting that the two stocks will return to their historical norm.

Pairs trading is merely one of many trading strategies, and like all others, it has its pros and cons. Prospective traders may benefit from a discussion with a financial professional before trying it out.

Ready to invest in your goals? It’s easy to get started when you open an investment account with SoFi Invest. You can invest in stocks, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), mutual funds, alternative funds, and more. SoFi doesn’t charge commissions, but other fees apply (full fee disclosure here).

For a limited time, opening and funding an Active Invest account gives you the opportunity to get up to $1,000 in the stock of your choice.

FAQ

Is pairs trading still profitable?

Yes, pairs trading can be profitable, assuming a trader knows what they’re doing, and the risks involved with using the strategy. As always, there’s no guarantee that it will be profitable, however.

What are the risks of pairs trading?

Risks associated with a pairs trading strategy include the possibility of the trading model failing due to faulty assumptions on the part of a trader — that is, historical correlation between two stocks may not mean that the correlation has continued. Traders should also know that pairs trading involves fast movements, and that there’s a chance trades may not execute at the desired time.

How many pairs should a beginner trade?

It may be wise for a beginner to start with a single pair, until they get the gist or hang of the strategy.

SoFi Invest®
INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE
SoFi Invest encompasses two distinct companies, with various products and services offered to investors as described below: Individual customer accounts may be subject to the terms applicable to one or more of these platforms.
1) Automated Investing and advisory services are provided by SoFi Wealth LLC, an SEC-registered investment adviser (“SoFi Wealth“). Brokerage services are provided to SoFi Wealth LLC by SoFi Securities LLC.
2) Active Investing and brokerage services are provided by SoFi Securities LLC, Member FINRA (www.finra.org)/SIPC(www.sipc.org). Clearing and custody of all securities are provided by APEX Clearing Corporation.
For additional disclosures related to the SoFi Invest platforms described above please visit SoFi.com/legal.
Neither the Investment Advisor Representatives of SoFi Wealth, nor the Registered Representatives of SoFi Securities are compensated for the sale of any product or service sold through any SoFi Invest platform.

Financial Tips & Strategies: The tips provided on this website are of a general nature and do not take into account your specific objectives, financial situation, and needs. You should always consider their appropriateness given your own circumstances.

Claw Promotion: Customer must fund their Active Invest account with at least $25 within 30 days of opening the account. Probability of customer receiving $1,000 is 0.028%. See full terms and conditions.

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Sep
08
2023
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How to Use the Risk-Reward Ratio in Investing

By | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing, Terminology | Comments Off on How to Use the Risk-Reward Ratio in Investing

In the investment world, a reward-to-risk ratio indicates how much money an investor stands to gain, against how much they’ll have to risk. For example, a reward-to-risk ratio of 6:1 means that for every dollar an investor stands to lose, they have the potential to gain $6.

The risk-reward ratio is a valuable analytical tool available to investors. Since no investment is genuinely risk-free, the risk-reward ratio helps calculate the potential outcomes of any investment transaction — good or bad.

What Is the Risk-Reward Ratio?

As noted, the reward-to-risk ratio indicates how much money an investor stands to gain levied against how much they’re risking in order to generate that potential gain. This can be particularly important for those with small portfolios, and it may be helpful to review tips on risk for new investors.

Typically, the more money one invests — such as in high-risk stocks — the more ample the reward if the investment turns out to be a winner. On that note, it may be beneficial to review a guide to high risk stocks, too. Conversely, the less risk you take with an investment, the less reward will likely be earned on the investment.

In addition, the investment itself directly impacts the risk-reward ratio. For example, if an individual parks his money in a savings account at a bank, the risk of losing that money is significantly low, as bank deposits are insured and there’s little chance the bank saver will lose any money on the deal.

In other words, using a savings account to accrue interest is a fairly safe investment.

Likewise, the potential reward for parking cash in a bank savings account is also low. Bank savings accounts offer routinely low interest rates earned on insured bank deposits, meaning the individual will likely earn little in interest on the deposit. If savings accounts were somewhere on an investment risk pyramid, they’d be among other relatively safe investments — low risk, but low potential returns.

Compare that scenario to a stock market investor, who has no guarantees that the money she steers into a stock transaction will be intact in the future. It’s even possible the stock market investor will lose all of her investment principal if the stock turns sour and loses significant value.

Correspondingly, this investor is presumably looking at a greater reward for the risk taken when buying a stock. If the stock climbs in value, the investor is rewarded for the risk she took with the investment, as she’ll likely earn significantly more money on the stock deal than the bank saver will make on the interest earned on his bank deposit.

💡 Quick Tip: Are self-directed brokerage accounts cost efficient? They can be, because they offer the convenience of being able to buy stocks online without using a traditional full-service broker (and the typical broker fees).

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How To Calculate Risk-Reward Ratio

The reward-to-risk ratio formula is a fairly straightforward calculation, and involves following a formula.

Risk-Reward Ratio Formula

To calculate risk-reward ratio, divide net profits (which represent the reward) by the cost of the investment’s maximum risk.

For instance, for a risk-reward ratio of 1:3, the investor risks $1 to hopefully gain $3 in profit. For a 1:4 risk-reward ratio, an investor is risking $1 to potentially make $4.

Example of a Risk-Reward Ratio Calculation

Let’s say an investor is weighing the purchase of a stock selling at $100 per share and the consensus analyst outlook has the stock price topping out at $115 per share with an expected downside bottom of $95 per share.

The investor makes the trade, hoping the stock will rise to 115, but hedges his investment by putting in a “stop-loss” order at $95, ensuring his investment will do no worse by automatically selling out at $95. The investor can also lock in a profit by instructing the broker to automatically sell the stock once it reaches its perceived apex of $115 per share.

As an aside: A stop loss order is a type of market order in which the order that is placed with a stockbroker to buy or sell a specific stock once that security reaches a predetermined price level. The mechanism is specifically designed to place a limit on an investor’s stock position.

In this scenario, the “risk” figure in the equation is $5 — the total amount of money that can be lost if the stock declines and is automatically sold out at $95 (i.e., $100 minus $95 = $5).

The “reward” figure is $15. That’s the amount of per-share money the investor will earn once the share price rises from buying the stock at $100 per share and selling it if and when the stock rises to $115 per share.

Thus, with an expected risk of 5 and an expected reward of 15, the actual risk reward ratio is 1:3 — the potential to lose $5 in order to gain $15.

Pros and Cons of the Risk-Reward Ratio

There are pros and cons to using the risk-reward ratio when investing.

As for the upsides, it’s a relatively simple formula and calculation that can help investors get a sense of whether their strategy makes sense. In that sense, it can be very useful with some basic risk management when tinkering with a portfolio.

On the other hand, it’s a relatively simple formula and calculation that may not be terribly accurate, and doesn’t necessarily deliver a whole lot of additional insight into a strategy. That’s something investors should take to heart, and why they may not want to only rely on risk-reward ratio to guide their overall strategy.

Recommended: Guide to Risk Neutral Probability

Three Risk-and-Reward Investor Types

Investors have their own comfort levels when assessing risk and reward ratios with their portfolios, with some proceeding cautiously, some taking a moderate dose of investment risk, and still others taking on more risk by investing aggressively on a regular basis.

The investment portfolios you build, either by yourself or with the help of a money management professional, reflect your personal risk tolerance.

Typically, there are three different types of investor when it comes to risk:

•   Conservative investors. These investors focus on low-risk, low-reward investments like cash, bonds, bond funds, and large-company stocks or stock funds.

•   Moderate investors. These investors look for a blend of risk and reward when constructing their investment portfolios, putting money into lower-risk investment vehicles like bonds, bond funds, and large-company stocks and funds with more broadly based categories like value and/or growth stocks and funds, international stocks, and funds, along with a small slice of alternative funds and investments like real estate, commodities, and stock options and futures.

•   Aggressive investors. This type of investor may completely bypass conservative investments and elect to fill his investment portfolio with higher-risk stocks and funds (like overseas stocks or small company stocks), along with higher-risk assets like gold and oil (commodities), stock options and futures, and more.

Each of the above investors recognizes the realities of risk and the potential of reward and balances them in different ways. Even conservative investors will accept a little risk to gain some reward.

For example, a conservative investor may invest in a corporate bond or municipal bond, knowing that in return for a guaranteed profit (in the form of paid interest) and upside asset protection (the bond’s principal being repaid), she takes on the small risk that the bond will default, and the principal and interest on the bond disappears.

An aggressive investor understands that by placing money in a high-risk stock, he is potentially risking some or all of his investment if the stock goes under, or significantly underperforms. In return for that risk, the more aggressive investor may reap the financial rewards of a booming stock price and a resulting major return on his investment.

In either scenario, the investor gauges the risk reward ratio and acts accordingly, betting that the outcome will work out in their favor, and that the risk outweighs the reward.

By not acting at all, and taking both risk and reward out of the equation, the investor won’t see their investment portfolio appreciate in value, and risk losing ground as economic realities like inflation, taxes, and stagnation eat into their wealth.

💡 Quick Tip: Did you know that opening a brokerage account online typically doesn’t come with any setup costs? Often, the only requirement to open a brokerage account — aside from providing personal details — is making an initial deposit.

Investing With SoFi

The risk-reward ratio is helpful in allowing investors to get an idea of how much they stand to gain versus how much they stand to lose in a given investment situation. Any risk-reward engagement depends on the quality of the research undertaken by the investor and/or a professional money management specialist.

That research should set the proper expected parameters of the risk (i.e., the money the investor can lose) and the reward (i.e., the expected portfolio gain the investment can make.) Once the risk and reward boundaries are set, the investor can weigh the potential outcomes of the investment scenario and make the decision to go forward (or not) with the investment.

Ready to invest in your goals? It’s easy to get started when you open an investment account with SoFi Invest. You can invest in stocks, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), mutual funds, alternative funds, and more. SoFi doesn’t charge commissions, but other fees apply (full fee disclosure here).

For a limited time, opening and funding an Active Invest account gives you the opportunity to get up to $1,000 in the stock of your choice.

FAQ

What is a good risk-reward ratio?

Generally speaking, a good risk-reward ratio is one that skews toward reward, rather than risk. If the ratio is calculated, a ratio below 1 is better, as it indicates that an investment has a bigger potential reward compared to risk.

What is a poor risk-reward ratio?

A poor risk-reward ratio would be one that is higher or greater than 1, as that would indicate that an investment involves more risk relative to the potential reward.

What are some things that the risk-reward ratio doesn’t take into account?

The risk-reward ratio doesn’t take several factors into account, and some of those include external and current events, market volatility, and liquidity in the markets.

SoFi Invest®
INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE
SoFi Invest encompasses two distinct companies, with various products and services offered to investors as described below: Individual customer accounts may be subject to the terms applicable to one or more of these platforms.
1) Automated Investing and advisory services are provided by SoFi Wealth LLC, an SEC-registered investment adviser (“SoFi Wealth“). Brokerage services are provided to SoFi Wealth LLC by SoFi Securities LLC.
2) Active Investing and brokerage services are provided by SoFi Securities LLC, Member FINRA (www.finra.org)/SIPC(www.sipc.org). Clearing and custody of all securities are provided by APEX Clearing Corporation.
For additional disclosures related to the SoFi Invest platforms described above please visit SoFi.com/legal.
Neither the Investment Advisor Representatives of SoFi Wealth, nor the Registered Representatives of SoFi Securities are compensated for the sale of any product or service sold through any SoFi Invest platform.

Financial Tips & Strategies: The tips provided on this website are of a general nature and do not take into account your specific objectives, financial situation, and needs. You should always consider their appropriateness given your own circumstances.

Claw Promotion: Customer must fund their Active Invest account with at least $25 within 30 days of opening the account. Probability of customer receiving $1,000 is 0.028%. See full terms and conditions.

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Sep
08
2023
What Is Yield to Call? Formula & Examples

What Is Yield to Call? Formula & Examples

By | Growing Wealth, invest, Investing, Terminology | Comments Off on What Is Yield to Call? Formula & Examples

An investor calculating yield to call is getting an idea of how much their overall bond returns will be. Specifically, yield to call refers to the total returns garnered by holding onto a bond until its call date. That doesn’t apply to all bonds, naturally, but can be very important for many investors to understand.

For investors who utilize bonds — callable bonds, in particular — as a part of their investment strategy, having a deep understanding of yield to call can be critical.

What Is Yield to Call?

As mentioned, yield to call (often abbreviated as “YTC”) refers to the overall return earned by an investor who buys an investment bond and holds it until its call date. Yield to call only concerns what are called callable bonds, which are a type of bond option.

With callable bonds, issuers have the option of repaying investors the value of the bond before it matures, potentially allowing them to save on interest payments. Callable bonds come with a call date and a call price, and the call date always comes before the bond itself matures.

A little more background: in a YTC scenario, ”yield” refers to the total amount of income earned over a period of time. In this case, the yield is the total interest a bond purchaser has accrued since purchasing the bond.

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How Yield to Call Works

If an investor buys a callable bond, they’ll see interest payments from the bond issuer up until the bond reaches maturity. The callable bond also has a call date, and the investor can choose to hold onto the bond until that date. If the investor does so, then YTC amounts to the total return the investor has received up until that date.

Yield to call is similar to yield to maturity, which is the overall interest accrued by an investor who holds a bond until it matures. But there are some differences, especially when it comes to how YTC is calculated.

💡 Quick Tip: When you’re actively investing in stocks, it’s important to ask what types of fees you might have to pay. For example, brokers may charge a flat fee for trading stocks, or require some commission for every trade. Taking the time to manage investment costs can be beneficial over the long term.

Yield to Call Formula

The raw yield to call calculation formula looks like this:

Yield to Call Formula:

Yield to call = (coupon interest payment + ( The call price – current market value ) ÷ time in years until call date ) ÷ (( call price + market value ) ÷ 2)

An investor should have all of the variables on-hand to do the calculation. Before we run through an example, though, here’s a breakdown of those variables:

•   Yield to call: The variable we are trying to solve for!

•   Coupon interest payment: How much the bondholder receives in interest payments annually.

•   Call price: The predetermined call price of the callable bond in question.

•   Current market value: The bond’s current value.

•   Time until call date: The number of years until the bond’s first call date arrives

The yield-to-call calculation will tell an investor the returns they’ll receive up until their bond’s call date. A bond’s value is roughly equal to the present value of its future earnings or cash flows — or, the return, at the present moment, that the bond should provide in the future.

How to Calculate Yield to Call

It can be helpful to see how yield to call looks in a hypothetical example to further understand it.

Yield to Call Example

For this example, we’ll say that the current face value of the bond is $950, it has an annual coupon interest payment of $50, and it can be called at $1,000 in four years.

Here’s how the raw formula transforms when we input those variables:

Yield to call = ($50 + ( $1,000 – $950 ) ÷ 4 ) ÷ (( $1,000 + $950 ) ÷ 2)

YTC = $25 ÷ $975

YTC = 0.0256 = 2.56%

Interpreting Yield to Call Results

Once we know that our hypothetical, callable bond has a yield to call of 2.56%, what does that mean, exactly? Well, if you remember back to the beginning, yield to call measures the yield of a bond if the investor holds it until its call date.

The percentage, 2.56%, is the effective return an investor can expect on their bond, assuming it is called before it matures. It’s important to remember, too, that callable bonds can be called by the issuer at any time after the call date. So, just because there is an expected return, that doesn’t necessarily mean that’s what they’ll see.

Yield to call calculations make a couple of big assumptions. First, it’s assumed that the investor will not sell the bond before the call date. And second, the calculation assumes that the bond will actually be called on the call date. Because of these assumptions, calculations can produce a number that may not always be 100% accurate.

Yield to Call Comparisons

Two calculations that are similar to YTC are “yield to maturity,” and “yield to worst.” All three calculations are related and offer different methods for measuring the value that a bond will deliver to an investor.

A different type of yield calculation would be needed if you wanted to try and measure the overall interest you’d earn if you held a bond to maturity. That’s different from measuring the overall interest you’d earn by simply holding the bond until its call date.

Yield to Call vs Yield to Maturity

YTC calculates expected returns to a bond’s call date; yield to maturity calculates expected returns to the bond’s maturity date. Yield to maturity gives investors a look at the total rate of return a bond will earn over its entire life, not merely until its call date (if it has one).

Yield to Call vs Yield to Worst

Yield to worst, or “YTW,” measures the absolute lowest possible yield that a bond can deliver to an investor. Assuming that a bond has multiple call dates, the yield to worst is the lowest expected return for each of those call dates versus the yield to maturity. Essentially, it gives a “worst case” return expectation for bondholders who hold a bond to either its call date or for its entire life.

If a bond has no call date, then the YTW is equal to the yield to maturity — because there are no other possible alternatives.

💡 Quick Tip: Look for an online brokerage with low trading commissions as well as no account minimum. Higher fees can cut into investment returns over time.

The Takeaway

Learning what yield to call is and how to calculate it, can be yet another valuable addition to your investing tool chest. For bond investors, YTC can be helpful in trying to figure out what types of returns you can expect, especially if you’re investing or trading callable bonds.

It may be that you never actually do these calculations, but having a cursory background in what the term yield to call means, and what it tells you, is still helpful information to keep in your back pocket.

Ready to invest in your goals? It’s easy to get started when you open an investment account with SoFi Invest. You can invest in stocks, exchange-traded funds (ETFs), mutual funds, alternative funds, and more. SoFi doesn’t charge commissions, but other fees apply (full fee disclosure here).

For a limited time, opening and funding an Active Invest account gives you the opportunity to get up to $1,000 in the stock of your choice.

FAQ

What is the advantage of yield to call?

Yield to call helps investors get a better idea of what they can expect in terms of returns from their bond holdings. That can help inform their overall investment strategy.

How do you calculate yield to call in Excel?

Calculating yield to call can be done the old fashioned way, with a pen and paper, or in a spreadsheet software, of which there are several. An internet search should yield results as to how to calculate YTC within any one of those programs.

Is yield to call always lower than yield to maturity?

Generally, an investor would see higher returns if they hold a bond to its full maturity, rather than sell it earlier. For that reason, yield to call is generally lower than yield to maturity.

Photo credit: iStock/MicroStockHub

SoFi Invest®
INVESTMENTS ARE NOT FDIC INSURED • ARE NOT BANK GUARANTEED • MAY LOSE VALUE
SoFi Invest encompasses two distinct companies, with various products and services offered to investors as described below: Individual customer accounts may be subject to the terms applicable to one or more of these platforms.
1) Automated Investing and advisory services are provided by SoFi Wealth LLC, an SEC-registered investment adviser (“SoFi Wealth“). Brokerage services are provided to SoFi Wealth LLC by SoFi Securities LLC.
2) Active Investing and brokerage services are provided by SoFi Securities LLC, Member FINRA (www.finra.org)/SIPC(www.sipc.org). Clearing and custody of all securities are provided by APEX Clearing Corporation.
For additional disclosures related to the SoFi Invest platforms described above please visit SoFi.com/legal.
Neither the Investment Advisor Representatives of SoFi Wealth, nor the Registered Representatives of SoFi Securities are compensated for the sale of any product or service sold through any SoFi Invest platform.

Financial Tips & Strategies: The tips provided on this website are of a general nature and do not take into account your specific objectives, financial situation, and needs. You should always consider their appropriateness given your own circumstances.

Claw Promotion: Customer must fund their Active Invest account with at least $25 within 30 days of opening the account. Probability of customer receiving $1,000 is 0.028%. See full terms and conditions.

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Sep
08
2023
What Is the Acid-Test Ratio?

What Is the Acid-Test Ratio?

By | Financial Independence, Growing Wealth, invest, Investing | Comments Off on What Is the Acid-Test Ratio?

The acid-test ratio (ATR) is one popular way to calculate a company’s liquidity, or the amount of cash or near-cash assets a company has to deal with immediate expenditures.

In comparing a company’s short-term assets against short-term liabilities, the acid-test ratio shows whether or not a company is well-financed. This ratio is subjective based on industry and the primary fundamentals of certain business models, but is a useful tool for gaining a basic understanding of a company’s liquidity level.

What Is the Acid Test Ratio?

An acid-test ratio (ATR), or quick ratio, is a comparison of a company’s most liquid short-term assets and short-term liabilities to calculate how much money it has to pay for immediate liabilities. In other words, it calculates how well a company can pay for short-term financial obligations with cash or assets that are easy to convert into cash.

The ATR disregards illiquid company financial assets such as real estate and inventory, instead focusing on the company’s ability to pay its current liabilities without needing to sell inventory or secure additional outside funding. This form of fundamental analysis is a more conservative measure than the current ratio, which includes all current assets when accounting for current liabilities.

A higher ATR indicates a company’s better liquidity and financial health, whereas a lower ratio indicates a company is more likely to struggle with paying immediate liabilities such as debts and other expenses. That being said, if a company takes longer to collect accounts receivable than usual or has current liabilities that are due but have no immediate payment needed, the acid-test ratio may not provide an accurate measurement of a company’s financial wellness.


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What Does the Acid-Test Ratio Tell You?

The acid-test ratio shows how financially capable a company is of paying short-term financial expenses. For beginner stock investors, calculating a company’s ATR may be an insightful fundamental analysis to look at a company’s financials.

An acid-test ratio of less than one indicates a company doesn’t hold sufficient liquid assets to cover current short-term liabilities and should be dealt with cautiously. It’s generally held that for most industries, the acid-test ratio should be greater than one.

However, a high ATR is not always best, as it could indicate an excess of idle cash that could otherwise be reinvested, returned to shareholders, or otherwise used productively for the business. For example, some technology companies generate substantial cash flows, which results in above-average acid-test ratios. While this indicates a healthy and productive business, some may advocate that shareholders who invest in the company should receive dividends from the company’s profits.

Recommended: How Do Stock Dividends Work?

If a company’s ATR is significantly lower than the current ratio, this indicates the company’s current assets largely depend on inventory. This isn’t necessarily a negative sign as some business models are inherently inventory-driven, such as retail stores, which typically have low acid-test ratios but aren’t necessarily in poor financial condition.

In such scenarios, it may make sense to consider other metrics such as inventory turnover. While acid-test ratios can vary widely based on industry, comparisons based on acid-test ratios can be more helpful when analyzing peer companies in the same industry.

How to Calculate the Acid-Test Ratio

The acid-test ratio is calculated as follows:
ATR = (Cash + Cash equivalents + Marketable securities + Current accounts receivables) ÷ Total current liabilities

To fully understand the ATR, it’s important to know the significance of each part of the equation:

•  Cash and Cash Equivalents: The most liquid current assets on a company’s balance sheets:

◦  Savings accounts

◦  CD with maturity of less than three months

◦  Treasury bills

•  Marketable Securities: Liquid financial instruments readily convertible into cash.

•  Accounts Receivables: Money owed to the company from providing goods and/or services to customers/clients.

•  Current Liabilities: Debts or obligations due within 12 months.

What Does the Numerator Mean in ATR?

The acid-test ratio’s numerator is ultimately a realistic assessment of the company’s liquid assets. This includes cash, cash equivalents, and short-term investments such as marketable securities, treasury bills, and very short-term deposits.

Accounts receivable are generally factored in as well, though there are industry-specific exceptions, such as construction, where accounts receivable may take significantly more time to recover than other industries — which may give the illusion the company’s financial condition is worse than in actuality.

Alternatively, the numerator can be calculated by subtracting illiquid assets, including inventory, from all current assets. This may negatively skew retail businesses’ financial condition because of the amount of inventory they typically hold. Additionally, subtract any other items that appear as assets on a balance sheet if they cannot be used to cover immediate-term liabilities such as prepayments, advances to supplies, and tax-deferred assets.

What Does the Denominator Mean in ATR?

The acid-test ratio’s denominator is composed of all current liabilities, defined as debts and financial obligations, due within 12 months.

Though time is not factored into the acid-test ratio formula, it can be a relevant variable. For example, if a company’s accounts payable are due sooner than its receivables are expected, the ratio may not factor for this time discrepancy that may arise, thus worsening the company’s financial health.

On the other hand, time can also be a benefit if accounts receivable are more frequent and regular than accounts payable, providing more frequent cash infusions to a possible undersupply of short-term assets.

Pros and Cons of the Acid-Test Ratio

When it comes to assessing the usefulness and accuracy of the ATR, there are both pros and cons.

Pros

1.   It removes inventory from calculation, providing a more accurate picture of the company’s liquidity position.

2.   It removes Bank Overdraft and Cash Credit from current liabilities because they are usually secured by inventory, thus making the ratio more tangible.

3.   It’s not handicapped, as there is no need for valuation of inventory.

Cons

1.   The ATR is not the sole determinant of a company’s liquidity. It’s commonly paired with other liquidity formulas such as current ratio or cash flow ratio to form a more complete and accurate assessment of a company’s financial condition and liquidity status.

2.   ATR disregards inventory in calculating the ratio because inventory isn’t generally considered a liquid asset. However, for businesses that are able to quickly sell their inventory at market price, inventory would qualify as a near-cash asset.

3.   It doesn’t provide information regarding time frame and degree of cash flows—fundamental factors in accurately calculating a company’s ability to satisfy its accounts payable when due.

4.   It assumes accounts receivable are readily available, which may not be as easy as anticipated.

The Takeaway

The Acid-test ratio is an insightful and relatively accurate analysis of a company’s liquidity status. It’s one of the many methods for analyzing businesses, reviewing business fundamentals and company financials.

By comparing the company’s cash on-hand, near-cash equivalents, and easily convertible short-term assets against its current liabilities, one can surmise how readily prepared a company is to satisfy short-term liabilities. The formula determines how liquid a company is based on a variety of assets and expected cash flows versus expected accounts payable. This ratio, though not designed to be used solely, ultimately determines if a company is well capitalized or under financial strain. For an investor, this can help shine a light on whether or not a company may or may not be a promising investment.

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